The Prosperity and Influence of Islam on Art

Although Islam is first and foremost a religion, it also established trading customs that made exchanges within its bounds more unified, and thus easier to navigate, than had been the case earlier. Many hadiths set standards for conducting trades, and Islam prohibited stealing from a fellow Muslim, though not from a non-believer. However, if a person converted peacefully to Islam, their property would be spared and they'd be free from additional taxes—one significant incentive to follow Islam. Islam spread quickly to unite geographically and culturally distant regions. This ultimately put the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean Sea, and Arabian Peninsula trade routes under Islam’s control. With the expansion of Islam came the expansion of artistic characteristics of Islam into cultures geographically far away, but linked by trade and religion. (Bernstein, 71-72)

 
The following two examples of artwork come from some of the furthest reaches of the Islamic Empire. These works reflect the extent of Islamic influence, from India to Spain to most of Northern Africa. The symbols used in the art are significantly similar, though the materials used are different in this case. During the rise and peak of Islam—from approximately 622 to 1258 AD—Islam provided a unifying language, culture, and trade customs for the regions under its influence.

Qutb Minar in Delhi, India

1199-1369 AD

This photo captures just a small portion of the Koranic verses and Arabic designs on this architectural minaret in Delhi, India.  Though there have Islamic trade posts in India since the 700s, this is the first Indo-Islamic minaret to be built in India by the first Islamic Sultans of Delhi, Qutbu'd-Din Aibak.  The minaret is made of brick and stands about 72.5 meters tall which puts it at the tallet minaret in the world, but decreases its practicality.  It took over a century to complete the project, and several restorations have followed as natural events - earthquakes, lightning - have damaged the minaret.

Pyxis of al-Mughira (AD 968)

Spain, Madinat al-Zahra

The Pyxs of al-Mughira shows some similarities in design with the Minaret of India with the intricate hand carving and repetitive patters.  This piece appears to be a gift for a young man, since the Arabic inscription around the lid says, "God's blessing, favors, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira son of the Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him, in the year 357" (Louvre).  According to the Louvre Museum, "Ivory— a rare and precious material — was used for diplomatic gifts from North Africa to the Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba in al-Andaluz (modern Spain)." 

These two pieces represent the spread of Islam and the use of trade within the Islamic Empire.  To summarize, the Qutb Minar celebrates the triumph of Islam in India and the Pyxis of al-Mughira represents the use of African ivory as a gift for a son of a powerful Islamic leader in Spain around the same time.  This illustrates a vast trade network and the spread of artistic trends from the heart of Islamic Arabia to the fringes of the empire.


Sources/References:


Yalman, Susan. "The Birth of Islam Heilbrunn." Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


Advisory Board Evaluation. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1993. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


"Pyxis of Al-Mughira." Louvre Museum. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


A Splendid Exchange, Chapter 3


Smart, Ninian. Atlas of the World's Religions. Cary, N.C.: Oxford UP, 1999. 26-27, 174-175.

Gardner's Art through the Ages, 749-750

The European Discovery of America

The European discovery of America had two major effects on artwork in the world. In the Americas, the European domination of the continent accelerated the decline of native artistic endeavors overall. Fewer artists produced fewer pieces of art and with less elaborate designs than found at the peak of indigenous American empires. In Central America, the Spaniards often destroyed indigenous art and religious structures that contained much of the art and replaced the local temples with Spanish cathedrals. The photo below captures this dynamic in Guatemala. Spaniards sought to reduce the ancient Mayan temples from their previous magnificence to their current decrepit state. Although this temple is now part of a national park, the trees growing from the temple indicate that the building will return to the earth unless drastic preservation measures are implemented soon. (Atlas of World Art, 148-151)

In North America, the experience varied depending on the colonizing power. Some tribes, such as the Creeks, abandoned their culture and adopted British and European techniques in farmin, hoping to assimilate successfully. Others, like the Navajo of northern Mexico, used the new technology introduced by Europeans to pursue weaving as an art rather than simply for useful purposes and which opened up markets for their new woven products. Their weaving went from simple, muted colors, to blankets and cloths with bright colors that adopted Spanish and American designs. In the beginning of European colonization of the Americas, the small European presence depended on favorable trade with the native cultures. Once the population of the Europeans grew, and the native populations declined due to diseases, forced assimilation and the destruction of native cultures increased rapidly—coinciding with a decrease of artistic outputs by native tribes. (Creative Destruction)

European art from the discovery of the New World and for the centuries beyond provide significant information on the beliefs and economics of those exploring the Americas. Often, the art studied, such as the painting below, are supposed to document events and people, rather than serve a purely decorative purpose or a daily functional purpose. The painting of the Manhattan purchase captures the sale of Manhattan for blankets, beads, and trinkets to the Indians. It uses idyllic lighting and soft edges to give the viewer a warm feeling, in significant contrast to the view by many Indians today that the Manhattan purchase was not a purchase but rather theft.

The European discovery of the Americas not only allowed for the rise of truly global trade, but also introduced new sources of materials and inspiration for European artists. Additionally, there was new wealth for many Europeans who profited from new trading boundaries and could now commission art, “The fortune created through intercontinental commercial ventures and military conquests translated into copious artistic commissions.” (Atlas of World Art, 155)

The photo above is The Virgin of the Navigators, by Alejo Fernández which depicts the Virgin Mary as a protector of the men who sought to sail from one continent to another. Painted around 1531, it is one of the first pieces of art to depict the exploration of the Americas. Just as the Virgin Mary towers over all the travelers as a protector, she appears to bless their journey and exploration as well. However, the painting was commissioned by the Casa de Contratacion (translates to House of Trade), not a church or religious institute. Not only does the painting thus indicate the pervasiveness of religion in Spanish culture, it also indicates the thriving trade industry that could afford to commission art.

Sources/References:
Phillips, Carla Rahn, 16th Century AD, Renaissance Quarterly, 2005


Frank Graziano. Wounds of love, Oxford University Press US, 2004, p. 147


Atlas of World Art, 148-151


Personal Photos

Renaissance and Trade

To say that art stagnated from the fall of the Roman Empire to the start of the Renaissance era is misleading. In between the decline of the Roman Empire in the 300s and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century, there were tremendous architectural advances during the Romanesque and Gothic art periods, and Islamic art in Spain brought new artistic styles to the region. However, the Renaissance began in Italy when  art included a renewed interest in ideas from classical Greek and Roman art and cultures that inspired curiosity in the natural world. This renewed interest placed, "an emphasis on education and on expanding knowledge (especially of classical antiquity), the exploration of individual potential and a desire to excel, and a commitment to civic responsibility and moral duty," otherwise referred to as humanism. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 1102)




Art historians look at this time period as a time of shifting worldviews among European artists listing “greater illusionism, more emphatic pictorial solidity and spatial depth, and stronger emotional demonstrations from depicted figures,” among the developments in Renaissance art. (Gardner's Art through the Ages, 542)Meanwhile, economists view this time as a revival of European trade, especially long-distance trade. 


Italy was a natural place for the Renaissance to begin considering its prominent economic position. Italy’s port cities connected Europe with Asia, the Middle East, and Africa and experienced great success and economic growth at trade hubs. From Italy, major trade routes extended towards Portugal and Scandinavia that spread the ideas of the Renaissance as well as commodities.  (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 521-523)

Nicola Pisano, The Annunciation and the Nativity, 1260

Giovanni Pisano, The Annunciation and the Nativity, 1301

The two relief sculptures above highlight some of the changes during the early Renaissance art period.  The top sculpture by Nicola Pisano reflects interest in imitating or reviving the ancient classical artistic characteristics of Classical Greece and Rome.  The figures are solid, stoic, but rounded and proportional.  However, about forty years later, Giovanni Pisano, Nicola's son, does his own version of The Annunciation and the Nativity.  The relief sculpture is still done in the classical style, but has a more humanistic feeling. The figures are created in a way to give them movement, emotion, and to create the illusion of more depth between the characters—exactly the artistic techniques cultivated during the Renaissance. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 526)


The Renaissance was not solely an art movement, but it encompassed the renewed interest in learning about many different subjects.  The Benvenuto Cellini, Salt Cellar (1540) is a functional piece of art, intended to hold spices such as salt and pepper.  Yet its design is intricate, aware of depth and perspective, and includes reflects the nobility class' interest in classical art design.  The female appears to represent earth, while the male figure represents the sea, much like classic Greek and Roman gods.  (Atlas of World Art, 155)

Italy continued to be the center for artistic exchange and discovery in Europe, but upon the European discovery of America, new art from exotic cultures began to arrive in Europe.  Portugal developed major trade routes running to and from South America, Africa, India, the West Indies, and much of Asia.  The Netherlands had extensive trade routes by the 1500s running between Brazil, Africa, and Asia.  And Spain brought new materials from North, Central, and South America in addition to founding Spanish colonies in the Americas.  (Atlas of World Art, 154-155)

"Those countries and individuals that were in a position to exploit the new situation - first the Portuguese and Spanish and later the Dutch, French and English - could gain access to an unprecedented range of natural resources, from slaves and animals to plants and minerals. They, and those they traded with, could also learn from each other how to use the art and artifacts they made from these materials in a competitive display." (Atlas of World Art, 146)

This quotes articulates what the consequences are when certain countries are able to exploit their trade advantages to maximize their own benefit.  For the artists at that time, the "New World" meant there were more materials to work with, more wealthy citizens who could commission art, and the need for artists to reevaluate their perspective of the world now they were aware of a huge and still mostly unknown landmass in the world.  Meanwhile, new wealth and a larger gold supply upped the intensity of competitive display among the European nobles as they enlisted artists to create pieces to add to the elites' collection to show off their wealth and gain status. (Atlas of World Art, 154-155)


No discussion about the Renaissance could be complete without a review of Leonardo daVinci’s contributions to Renaissance art.  In some ways, da Vinci exemplifies the humanism that defines the Renaissance.  He was a talented artist, but also worked on inventions, tried different experiments, had an interest in anatomy, and studied a variety of other topics.  The Vitruvian Man was a study of the human body according to the ancient classical beliefs of the perfect dimensions of a man.  It reveals an understanding of anatomy, proportion, and science at it illustrates the concept of a perfect man.  Today the drawing is more synonymous with medical books than museums, but it shows the multi-dimensionality of many artists in the Renaissance.

Vitruvian Man, 1487

Mona Lisa (1505)

The Mona Lisa is one of the most famous paintings in the world, and it comes from Leonard da Vinci from the high Renaissance era.  It is unusual in part because the mysterious, empty landscape compliments the subject's hidden emotions.  The mysterious smile and soft, dark edges in the painting really engages the viewer in figuring out what the subject hides behind the crossed hands and partial smile. This painting also shows the technique called sfumato, which comes from the Italian word meaning smoky.  It is defined as the technique that softly blends areas from light to dark, which creates subtle transitions that gives the images a vague, hazy, or smoky appearance (Art Fundamentals, 150).  Da Vinci is credited with starting sfumato, though painters before him experimented with light and dark blending techniques as well.  (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 617-618)




Essentially, the Renaissance art took off when trade and commerce began to thrive once again in Europe.  This time, long-distance trade, economic growth, the discovery of the Americas, and more centralized governments set the foundations for the early stages of European capitalism.  Trade required credits and exchange systems, stable governments, enforceable agreements which led to the establishment of trading firms in places like Florence, Italy.  It's hard to determine exactly which factors contributed to the rise of Renaissance art, but the economic revivals that occured in much of Europe at this time played a major role in sustaining and encouraging artistic experimentation. 


Increased trade coincided with increased European wealth which fueled the demand for art and allowed more people to jump into art production.  New techniques in perspective, shading, dimension, and types of materials led to a distinct change in European art from the flat, usually religious and ornate Gothic art of the 1200s to the emotionally captivating and highly expressive art during the high Renaissance period a few centuries later.  These masterpieces continue to inspire artists to this day and revolutionized how people understand art.  In a sense, the changes during this time changed art from simply a thing one views, to something one can experience and connect with emotionally.




Sources:


Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 521-523, 526, 542, 545, 617-618, 1102


Art Fundamentals, 150


Atlas of World Art, 146, 154-155

Art and Artistic Reactions to the Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution was possible because of increased trade, and increased trade accelerated the industrial revolution. The focus of many studies of the industrial revolution focus on the 1800s where factories, mechanized textiles, steam power, and the use of steel transformed the urban landscapes of England, the United States, and much of Europe. Although these societies in the 19th century remained primarily agrarian, the industrial revolution contributed significantly to the urbanization and growth of cities. With urban growth came pollution and overcrowding in slums, but also progress in areas such as city planning and sanitation, among other developments.

 

The industrial revolution also changed the way artists worked. Most used the tools and paints that were now mass-produced at factories but considerably cheaper. Many incorporated the industrial revolution into at least some of their work. Others reevaluated their perspective on reality as they witnessed increasing demands for resources and the colonization of less developed countries. In attempts to capture the events of modernity, many artists started to critically examine their society's status quo and the basic foundations of art. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 853-855)

Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, Philip James De Loutherbourg

Above is a painting of the newly industrialized village of Shropshire in western England. Loutherbourg contrasts a raging blaze from the factory with an idyllic woodland and rustic landscape. The painting captures the artists’ image of a particular moment in time while the dark colors used to paint the simple rural inhabitants are almost overwhelmed by the burst of bright light that draw the viewer’s attention to the center of the painting, away from the inhabitants and instead toward the industrial flames. The mood of painting suggests Loutherbourg viewed the industrialization of England negatively. However, the painting records the transformation of England’s economy from local and agrarian to one of increased productivity, a rapidly growing economy, and connected to the world through trade.

Fur Traders Descending the Missouri, George Caleb Bingham, 1845

This painting depicts one simple trade scene of the 1800s in the United States which reveals much about trade and transportation of the time. Although small canoes and boats such at the one illustrated were increasingly rare on the Missouri by 1845, Bingham appears to capture a moment in time. Although the subjects may be presented accurately in respect to their wealth and mode of transportation, there is an artistic perspective present that must be considered. The painting comes from the artists' point of view and Bingham’s intent or purpose for painting this scene can be speculated but not confirmed. It is difficult to discern whether he is lamenting the demise of the local fur trading way of life, or if he simply wants to record the event knowing that it will soon become history. (World Art: The Essential Illustrated History. 192.)

Grand Canyon of Yellowstone, Thomas Moran, 1872

This painting is interesting not because it depicts the industrial revolution, but because it is a product of industrialization. Moran painting several paintings of Yellowstone, but to finish his paintings, he took photographs and combined them with sketches for the final composition. Because of advances in transportation, Moran was able to get to the Grand Canyon of Yellowstone. Once he arrived at the Canyon, he used modern technology – the camera – to assist in the construction of his artwork. Despite taking photographs, he dramatically interprets the scene to achieve a particular image that he wishes to create. Although he could have painted the image with pinpoint accuracy, he uses soft lines to keep the dreamy quality of the Canyon in his final piece.

Claude Monet, Impression: Sunrise, 1872

Monet helped usher in a new era in art with his painting style. Named impressionism by his critics at first, impressionism seeks to capture a moment in time without the detail and smoothness of previous painting eras. Monet and the impressionists revolutionized art by exaggerating the texture of their brushstrokes and seeking to leave viewers with deep emotions rather than a definite image. In some ways, impressionism’s lack of clarity captures the chaos many felt with the pace of the industrial revolution.

Thus, artists found uses for many of the advances in technology during the Industrial Revolution. However, as new inventions revolutionized their way of life frequently during the 19th century – machines, trains, radio, electricity, telephone, camera, and steel, among others – artists began to respond differently. Some sought to record history, others wanted to share their view of the industrialization, and others, like Monet, used art to portray their subjective responses to nature and society.

Sources:

Art Fundamentals, chpt. 8

World Art Atlas, 192, 215

World Art: The Essential Illustrated History. Flame Tree Publishing, 2006. 192

Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 853-855, 869-870

Globalization and Global Art

Continued industrialization, two devastating World Wars and a global economic depression challenged how people viewed the world, including artists. Art movements of the early 20th century represent attempts of artists to move beyond social assumptions and challenge commonly held ideas, such as the primacy of rationality and unwavering faith in science that lingered from the thoughts of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution. Movements such as Cubism, Surrealism and Dadaism all emphasize abstraction—the process or visual effects characterized by the simplification or rearrangement of images—and characterize 20th century artwork. (Art Fundamentals, 2)

Pablo Picasso, The Young Ladies of Avignon, 1907

Pablo Picasso, a Spanish painter who bridged the 19th and 20th centuries, led the movement toward full abstraction in paintings. As Picasso once stated, “I paint forms as I think them, not as I see them” (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 971). Instead of representing the figures close to their forms in reality, Picasso flattened the images, interwove the bodies and incorporated his fascination with African art by painting an African mask on one of the women. In fact, Picasso benefitted from the expanding European colonization of the world by amassing an extensive collection of African art which in turn provided inspiration for many of his works. However, critics argued Picasso’s abstractions from reality were a move backwards in artistic endeavors since the flatness of the bodies and simplified backgrounds reminded some of ancient art, which they considered inferior. Instead, artists who followed Picasso were inspired and set forward in attempts to revisit common-held views on perspective, dimension, depth, and space. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 969-971)

Piet Mondrian, Composition with Red Blue and Yellow, 1930

When looking at a piece of modern art, one may wonder how to evaluate the art. Can one understand the social and economic forces behind artist motivation when pieces of art appear simple, as Piet Mondrian’s does above? The response is still yes. Although the simplicity of ancient art may inspire some of the experiments of modern artists, modern art’s abstractions are a result of awareness of intangible thoughts and emotions and seek to represent ideas that go beyond reality or show a new reality.

Dutch artist Piet Mondrian wanted to go above literal representations and worked to find an artistic concept that expressed a universal reality. He believed that great art had two goals: to create universal beauty and to visually please the artist himself. For Mondrian, he sought to express these two goals by using combination techniques to combine colors with lines to create a harmonious work of art.

The idea of universality is not new from a European standpoint, but universality and ideas of superiority have often been confused as synonymous. Different eras of Europeans believed their viewpoints represented the supreme and universal views of the world, just remember the Spanish conquistadors’ assumption of superiority, the Catholic Inquisition’s certainty of their point of view, and European justifications for colonization, among others.

However, when 20th century artists argue that they seek a universal reality, such as Mondrian, they do so with the knowledge of the diversity of cultures that exist. Such knowledge exists in a large part due to the rise of global trade that brought an awareness of the cultures of Africa and the Americas to the Europeans. Thus, is there such a thing as global art, since there is in fact global trade?  Increased international commerce encourages the movement of goods, ideas and people across increasingly fluid borders.  The next painter, Frida Kahlo, was a recipient of such benefits of trade, but also struggled with what her global travels meant for her personal identity.

Frida Kahlo, Autoretrato en la Frontera entre Mexico y los Estados, 1932

Frida Kahlo was a loyal Mexican citizen who loved her country. She started painting after an accident left her in chronic pain as a teenager and her paintings often reflect a Mexican-nationalist perspective. She became a popular Mexican artists, and had to travel frequently to the United States to display and sell her works to the thriving art markets of American cities.

In this work of art, America is painted as mechanical, dirty, and industrialized, suggesting that the industrialization of America could not sway her loyalties away from Mexico. However, Mexico is unindustrialized and, through the use of symbols, appears to be dying. Kahlo uses the painting to reveal her struggles to balance her concerns and love of Mexico with the need to travel and live in the United States for her and her husband’s artistic careers.

Here she is dressed in European garb but holds a Mexican flag. This painting indicates that Kahlo feels as if she is balancing between two countries and does not ascribe to or believe in a universal reality.  Kahlo accepts the need to travel across borders for the sake of selling her art to the appropriate markets, but she yearns for her own culture.  She represents not just herself, but all of those who are a part of the international economy but wish to resist changes to their culture. 

Paul Delvaux, La Ville Inquiete, 1940-1941

With global economics and global trade came truly global wars. World War II presented challenges to artists in how they perceived the world. French painter Delvaux highlights the destruction of World War II in his painting done during the Nazi occupation of France. This scene captures some of the chaos of the war with the dark tones and frantic nude bodies. The one clothed figure in the middle appears lost and frightened by the pandemonium that surrounds him. Delvaux commented on his work, saying, “I believe that it was inspired by its times, an anxious time, a time of upheaval. I simply tried to express this upheaval in my own particular way.” (Christie’s Fine Art Auctions)

The 20th century proved pivotal to artists and the progression of art.  World wars, global trade, far-flung empires, and technological advances inspired many to seek new ways of representing the world. Some artists used paintings to seek higher realities that would transcend cultures, such as Picasso and Mondrian, while Kahlo and Delvaux, among others, used their art to try to make sense of an ever-changing world.

Sources:

"Paul Delvaux (1897-1994) La Ville Inquiète." Christie's - Fine Art Auctions. Web. 7 Apr. 2010.

World Art: The Essential History, pg. 300, 304,305,327

Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 969-971, 1000-1001

Art Fundamentals, 2.

Cowen, Tyler. Creative Destruction.