In Conclusion

Some look at modern art and fear that technology and the internet will erode the quality work by encouraging art that can be mass-produced and sold to the largest or most profitable market. Others believe modern technology is a way to challenge the artistic boundaries that remain and develop a truly global artistic society. Some artists wish to keep their cultural identity even as they feel pulled toward global culture, while others seek to create and embrace an artistic culture that transcends statehood and nationalism.


Tyler Cowen responds to this paradox by discussing how globalization both increases and decreases the diversity of art. He claims that, “Markets bring more homogeneity and more diversity,” to art (Creative Destruction, 103). What he means is that global trade allows individuals to have an increased diversity of art available to them while also decreasing the diversity among societies around the world. As native languages die out and remote cultures adopt Western technologies, they lose a part of their cultural heritage but gain a lot in terms of medicine, technology, and access to the international economy. Additionally, Cowen argues that linking to the global economy does not always mean doom for local craft industries. Instead, the world market can more easily match poor artisans with wealthy art buyers to keep local cultural artists in business. At the very least, Western societies should not prevent or withhold global trade from poorer countries for the sake of preserving diversity.

Economic growth in the world market may reallocate art markets and suppliers, but art remains as popular as has been the case throughout history. Cultural globalization is an energetic, continual process that has occurred along trade routes in history for millennia. Artistic ideas traveled and transcended local tribes in the Islamic Empire, just as they did in the Greek and Roman empires. As the scope of trade increased from three continents to six in the matter of a few centuries, artistic advances followed just as rapidly and broadly.



Today more people have access to art than ever before due to technology advances that bring down the costs of producing art and transportation revolutions that have increased the speed of economic transactions. Wealth art collectors can collect rare pieces of art around the world with minimal difficulties, while college dorm residents can plaster their walls with posters of artwork very cheaply.

What is it about art? Something about art resonates with people across cultures and around the world. Art inspires, provokes curiosities, and encourages experimentation. One may value art without considering its important relationship with economics, but in doing so one loses out on much of the cultural motivations and artistic inspiration for a work of art.

One day it will have to be officially admitted that what we have christened reality is an even greater illusion than the world of dreams.

- Salvador Dali

Introduction

This blog represents the collision of three interests: art, history, and economic interactions via trade. To blend my interests into a coherent study with worthwhile conclusions, I use artwork of specific periods to draw inferences about the relationship between art and trade throughout history. Each art piece or grouping of artwork includes an explanation of how art can reflect the economic situation of a particular region or culture at a specific time.


Before pursuing this investigation, it is worthwhile to clarify a few matters regarding the nature of art and the terms that are used frequently.


First, art is subjective. Unlike many aspects of economics, it is difficult to form infallible hypotheses since it is nearly impossible to quantify art or set specific standards of artisanship.  Even trying to compare art presents its difficulties since art fluctuates considerably throughout history and among cultures.


Thus, when there is mention of “advanced” art or techniques, there will be an accompanying phrase or brief explanation to discuss in what sense the art has advanced beyond the previous artwork in the region. In general, advanced artwork likely includes some or most of the following:


• The adoption of new techniques that allows an artist to produce art differently or more efficiently


• An artists’ ability to produce different art than previously found in their culture or refine their work to coincide with their society’s changing needs or definitions of beauty


• The development and utilization of perspectives, dimensions, and details to create a specific concept of space


• Subject clarity that evolves from art as a useful tool, to the representation of people and events, to the portrayal of abstract ideas


Second, I will need to clarify what the word “art” encompasses. In a variety of settings, the term “art” is frequently used synonymously with the term “craftsmanship,” though not without warrant. From the Merriam-Webster dictionary online to art textbooks, both art and craftsmanship include the concept of having knowledge of materials and the development of skills.  For this study, I looked at art that required skills that needed to be acquired through apprenticeship, study of the art or craft, or years of practice. The art created through this process is a product of those skills and often is a tangible object that can be traded as a commodity as well.


In the end, it is the artist who decides what art to create. The artist chooses the structure, the materials and tools to use, and the subject matter. This is an area of interest to this study. Then the question is, “why?”  Why did the artist choose to make the pottery, the portrait, or the sculpture?  Why did the artist use those materials?  How did the artist chose a particular subject matter to portray in his or her work? The answer to these questions often reflect, to some degree, the wealth of the area, the extent of the trade network, and the general economic stability (or lack thereof) of the region.


Therefore, this study of art seeks to see if natural economic inferences, drawn from artwork during a particular time period, coincide with actual economic conditions of the place, to the extent the economic conditions of the period studied could be determined.






*The inspiration for my ideas and definitions related to artwork come from the 11th Edition of Art Fundamentals: Theory and Practice, published by McGraw Hill in 2009. Pages 5-12.

Prehistoric Trade

“Although we may speculate about their purposes, these early images reveal something as old as humanity itself—the magical urge to create.”

- Art Fundamentals, 4.

A primitive and local nature characterizes Prehistoric art, according to the evidence and pieces available to scholars today. The term Prehistoric generally refers to the Paleolithic Age, beginning around 30,000 BCE and lasting many millennia. Evidence of trade prior to ~10,000 BC exists in excavation sites and remaining pieces of primitive art and tools from ancient tribes but shows minimal long-distance trade. However, remnants of art and tools of ancient tribes help scholars today piece together an understanding of the state of the economy and trade during the Paleolithic age.

Artistic items found from excavation sites today that discoverers credit to the Paleolithic Age include cave paintings, necklaces, carvings in ivory and in stone. However, without any written sources, one can only conjecture as to the purposes of the artistic endeavors of the early human societies. (Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 15-16)

The image below is from the Chauvet Cave, discovered in 1994 in southern France. It may appear primitive and simple, yet the accomplishment of such art in a cave over 32,000 years ago suggests that humans have an innate sense of drive and innovation to creatively overcome the challenges of painting in a cave.

These paintings are found in areas of the Cave where there is little or no natural light, and are often difficult to access. In order to overcome the darkness of caves and paint high on the walls, recent excavations show that the people of the Chauvet Cave created grease lamps, scaffolding, paint, brushes, and other tools for the art. It is hard to know the purpose of the art since it could be part of a ritual, a personal expression of life in nature, or to record their history. What archeologists know are that cave paintings, found in most regions around the world during this time, required the discovery of particular tools to make the paintings possible, and indicate a desire in the early human societies to find a way to express, record, or enrich their lives through decoration and art.

Evidence of prehistoric trade is found in the Americas, Eurasia, Africa, and most other areas of the world, though still many millennia after the Chauvet Cave.*

It's likely increases in trade among villages or tribes allowed for more exchanges as people could barter for what they needed and could thus continue specializing. Artwork that appears to be created centuries after the Chauvet Cave drawing indicate that trade among unrelated cultures commenced long before cities and ports became hubs for trade.

One way to understand the trade routes of our ancestors is to look at the trade of artifacts and crafts. The stone carving below is one example.

This bone engraving is from the floor of the La Garma cave in northern Spain around 12,000 BC. The image on the dagger in Spain is extremely similar to the images found on spear tips in the French Pyrenees during the same period. This suggests there were interactions between the two regions that resulted in the sharing of design ideas or the trading of art and tools, or both.

The Prehistoric Period may not have achieved great works of art as defined by modern art standards, but this time period represents the beginning of permanent art and the building of a foundation for a larger human economy. The ingenuity and learning of ancient humans allowed for the development of tools to create art and overcome the challenges of painting in a cave or carving in stone. The ability to think creatively to overcome obstacles and fulfill needs is fundamental to a growing economy. As the economy progressed, so did trade between tribes.

Sources:

Thurman, Judith. "Letter from Southern France: First Impressions." The New Yorker. 23 June 2008. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .

Onians, John. Atlas of World Art. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2004. 16-19

*Trade and Exchange in Prehistoric Mississippi; Linguistic Evidence for Cultural Exchange in Prehistoric Western Central Asia; Prehistoric and historic traces in the mtDNA of Mozambique: insights into the Bantu expansions and the slave trade (Moodle)

Gardner, Helen, Fred S. Kleiner, and Christin J. Mamiya. Gardner's Art through the Ages. Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth, 2005.

Neolithic Art and Agriculture

Agriculture, animal domestication, a warmer climate, and permanent settlements characterize the start of the Neolithic Age, also referred to as the New Stone Age. With developments in agriculture and animal raising came a more dependable food source for communities and a more reliable trade network within villages. This time period shows that as communities developed more complex social structures and skills—such as weaving, metallurgy, and pottery—individuals increasingly specialized and trade among societies expanded.


This Egyptian mace head depicts a king bestowing water upon the subjects via irrigation (below). While it is decorative art that propagandizes the Egyptian king as the "benefactor of the people" it allows the modern viewer the chance to see some of the first signs of irrigation. By relying on the dependable Nile, the Egyptians were able to develop their agrarian economy. Eventually, the Nile supported Egyptian agriculture to the point that by the time Egypt became a province of Rome around 30 BC, it supported the Mediterranean world with its abundant grains. Art complexity seems to have coincided with the increasing complexity of agriculture and the Egyptian economy.

The following ceramic pot depicts a religious or social event of Egyptian culture around 3400 BC. Intricate decoration demonstrates advanced artisanship--only possible if there is an advanced economy where the artist can develop techniques without sacrificing daily needs.

During the Neolithic age in Europe, long-distance trade developed. From 2500 BC to 800 BC, the metal and resources trade of Europe advanced from local trade to long-distance trade. Amber, for example, was extracted primarily from northern European sites, yet excavators have found amber in art and utensils near the Alps. Europe also discovered bronze during this time by mixing copper and tin. To extract these metals required new technological skills that allowed for some large-scale mining to take place in the Alps.  For example, the Bronze Sun Chariot below represents a Danish ritual.

It is made of bronze, though no copper or tin mines were located near the Denmark at this time. Instead, tin and copper followed trade routes hundreds of miles long to get to their desired locations. Though this piece of art may reflect a Danish ritual, it also reflects the technology of the time. To import the metals required sea and land transportation technology sufficient to make the cost of the transaction reasonable for someone who was willing to commission the artist. Meanwhile, the art portrays a domesticated horse and the use of wheels in the chariot. The domestication of animals and invention of the wheel had been around Europe for some time, but the delicacy of the wheels and the use of bronze and gold in this piece of art symbolize the changes of technology in Europe since their prehistoric ancestors.


Sources:

Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 24-25, 55-57

 Atlas of World Art, 24-25, 30-31

Greek Art and the Mediterranean Trade Prior to 300 C.E.

Around 1000 BC the populations around the Mediterranean Sea saw the arts develop into complex and unique artwork that distinguished their art from the art of northern Europe and the Bronze Age.  Interestingly, scholars have found the first traces of the colossal architecture and artwork Greece is famous renowned for only after Greece established a trading post at the Nile delta. For several centuries afterward, Greek art bears a striking resemblance to typical Egyptian artwork.  Eventually, "The Greeks rejected the Egyptian-inspired Archaic style and revolutionized the history of art.” (Gardener’s Art through the Ages, 64)

Kouros Dedication

Egyptian influence in Greek art laid the foundation for art associated with the Greek classical age. Above is a replica statue of the Kouros dedication white marble statue found in a ~600 BC temple to Poseidon in Attica, Greece. The resemblance to Egyptian statues is acute in the statue's strong, straight stance. However, over time Greek artists would strive for “harmonious proportions” and this piece illustrates one step toward a more realistic depiction of the human body. The body of Kouros may resemble statues of Egypt, but its head is in proportion with the height of his body, and the hips are more rounded, and his hair flows more freely, which signify an awareness of, or an attempt to emulate, the human body in reality. (Gardner’s Through the Ages, 114; Atlas of World Art, 34-35)


Commissions and patrons who sought to find a visible way to enunciate their wealth supported Greek artists. Greek art became well known and a popular trade commodity outside of Greece as well, and the vase below exemplify the beginnings of traditional Greek art. The figures are black which became a signature characteristic of Greek pottery. 

Kleitias and Ergotimos, Francois Vase

circa 570 BC

Vases such as these were generally produced in Greece and Athens, in particular. That is the case with the vase above.  Archaeologists excavated the vase from a Etruscan tomb in northern Italy, and have found Greek vases around the Greek trading world which indicates that the popularity of Greek art was widespread and accessible for those who wished to acquire the artwork.  Ironically, the Greeks were not the first to develop the black figure technique, but they were the best marketers of their wares.  They obtained the technique from the Corinthians, but were successful at cornering the export market in black figure pottery for themselves by the mid-sixth century BC. (Gardner's Art through the Ages, 120)


The spread of Greek pottery around the Mediterranean world and the development of Greece's famous white marble statues were possible due to the expansion of trade routes of the time. Within Greece, sources for the white marble needed to start carving human forms is often found tens, if not hundreds, of miles from the sites of marble carving. Thus, effective transportation of such large quantities of marble required innovation and technology, as well as safe trade routes, to get the supply to the area of demand.


The travel of artwork - such as the vases - from their site of origin to lands far away illustrates the development of sea trade.  The Greeks needed this exchange to occur, as William Bernstein discusses in A Splendid Exchange, in order to import enough food and materials to sustain their growing populations.  By harnessing the energy of the prevailing currents and winds, sea trade could occur in the ~1000 BC to 300 BC time period among the Phoenicians, Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians with increasing frequency, although not always peacefully.




Sources/References:
Atlas of World Art, 34-35
A Splendid Exchange, chapter 2
Art Fundamentals, 231
Gardner’s Art Through the Ages, 64, 114, 120

The Roman Empire

Among the most well-known and established empires in history, the Roman Empire's rise to dominance in Europe and the Mediterranean contributed significantly to laying the foundations for future European art. Greece became a Roman province during the second century, BC, and Rome continued onward and conquered much of Europe between 100 BC and 100 AD. Indeed, at its peak the Roman Empire stretch from the Thames, to the Rhine, to the Nile, and Tigris rivers. This meant that the Roman Empire had many races, languages, and religions under its rule. Along with their conquests, the Romans brought wealth, patronage for the arts and new art styles. As one author said, “What Rome adopted from Greece it passed on to the medieval and modern worlds. If Greece was peculiarly the inventor of the European spirit, Rome was its propagator and amplifier.” (Gardner’s, 164)


Wealth, and the importance of showing off one's wealth, led to an increasing demand for fine arts. Below is the Gemma Augustea, a Roman sardonyx cameo from the 1st century AD.

Art historians have traced this piece to a Greek artist in Rome, but the unique stone appears to come from a region in India. To have wares and precious stones travel from India to Italy would fit within the Roman Empire’s protective boundaries and thus be compatible with the idea that an artist in Italy could use stone from India for specific purposes. (Atlas of World Art, 67)


In comparison, people developed art at varying rates in the Americas as well. In North America, the tribes in Alaska at this time were making art and figurines with minimal detail. Though experienced in working with walrus ivory, the art from excavations around Alaska indicate the harsh conditions of the people. 

Scholars from the Metropolitan Museum of Art identify this figure as a rough outline of a human form, though it is just barely recognizable as such. This carving from walrus ivory occurred sometime between 200 BC and 100 AD - around the same time the Roman Empire lavishly endowed the arts. These photos contrast the wealth and development of two cultures that coexisted at the same time in history. Alaska's harsh climate and lack of access to trade hindered artistic refinement while the Roman Empire's access to metals, stones, and specialized artisans contributed to innovation and specialization within the art world.

As Rome conquered much of Europe, they brought their artistic ideas and techniques with them. After the fall of the Roman Empire, artists continued to use many of the techniques introduced to Europe from the Roman Empire until when Europe began exploring new forms and methods of art during the European Renaissance. (Gardner's Art through the Ages, 247)


Sources/References:
"Gemma Augustea." Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .
"Human Figure." Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .
Atlas of World Art, pg. 66-67
Gardener's Art through the Ages, 164, 247

Art in the Americas before the European Discovery

In the Americas, the type of artisan work varied regionally.  In North America, where the landscape never included an empire on the scale of a Mayan or Roman Empire, artwork remained simple and a part of day-to-day life. With less trade, there was less exposure to other ideas for artwork.  The bowl below is from New Mexico in the 900s AD. The ceramic work uses local clay and represents a local animal. However, the shapes of the rabbits are simplified and have few details of real rabbits. Why would an artist choose to paint rabbits without the details?  

One may speculate as to the reasons why the artist chose this particular decoration, but one must remember that the bowl also served as a useful tool. The number of artisans, perhaps, was not large enough to service all the community’s needs if such detail was included. Maybe details were not highly values in artisan work.  Therefore, if the community demanded more detailing on their pottery, there would have been an industry for such a position. This bowl reflects just as much on the artist as the community at that time—it may indicate that art was less about the detail and more about something else, such as painting a good luck charm, fulfilling a ritual, or creating simple but aesthetically pleasing dishware.

New Mexico, mid 9th-century to 1200s AD

Circa 539 AD, Mexico or Guatemala (Mayan)

Further south in Central America around the 600s, the Mayan region experienced a population boom. Hundreds of settlements made up more than sixty kingdoms, each controlled by a supreme ruler vying for domination over land, resources, and trade routes. This seems to have led to a diverse array of artistic techniques as regions competed for social, political, and economic dominance. As the Mayan kingdom began its mysterious decline around 900 AD, so did artistic production and experimentation. Fewer pieces are found in the region after 900 AD, and the pieces found generally lack the detail of typical artwork from before, as illustrated with the carved bowl pictured above.

Ceremonial Knife, Peru, 900s - 1100s AD

In South America, two major communities formed. One was in the high plateau of Peru, and the other was in the Andes. Though they were not allies, roads and trade routes connected them. Myths and images are associated with each respective community, but techniques in metalworking and sculpture appear to be shared. Interestingly, the indigenous people in the Americas were able to find advances in metalworking without interaction with Eurasian techniques or discoveries. However, not every community discovered metalworking and the use of metals remained primarily in the Andean region of South America, traveling only into Mexico when Europe found America. Even then, metals were used primarily for decorative purposes while tools were generally constructed of stone. The knife above may be a tool, but it is a ceremonial knife and not one used for daily or military purposes. (Gardner's Art through the Ages, 381)


However, the impact of trade in the Americas can be found by comparing the three regions discussed. North America lacked a strong trade network, though trade certainly existed regionally. Goods such as shells, turquoise, and food were exchanged among groups in the southwest states of present-day United States.  In this region, trade occured by foot since there were no large domesticated animals in North America until the Europeans arrived.  Remnants of pottery from this regon suggests trade occurred but on a smaller scale when compared to artifacts from areas further south. (Prehistoric Trade at Lost City)


Central American trade is undisputed, as the Mayan empire connected vast regions together. South America also experienced trade on a large scale due to the development of Incan roads and the necessity of trade to obtain enough food to sustain their larger cities. Today large ruins illustrate the advances in architecture and artistic metallurgy that remind the current viewer that economic prosperity allowed peoples in Central and South America the opportunity to discover advanced techniques in craftsmanship.

 

Sources/References:


"Maya Area, 500–1000 A.D." Heilbrunn Timeline. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York:. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/?period=06®ion=caa.


"Carved Bowl [Mexico or Guatemala; Maya]." Heilbrunn Timeline. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


"Prehistoric Trade at Lost City." Online Nevada Encyclopedia. 7 Mar. 2010. http://www.onlinenevada.org/prehistoric_trade_at_lost_city.


Atlas of World Trade, pg. 96-101


Gardner's Art through the Ages, 381

The Prosperity and Influence of Islam on Art

Although Islam is first and foremost a religion, it also established trading customs that made exchanges within its bounds more unified, and thus easier to navigate, than had been the case earlier. Many hadiths set standards for conducting trades, and Islam prohibited stealing from a fellow Muslim, though not from a non-believer. However, if a person converted peacefully to Islam, their property would be spared and they'd be free from additional taxes—one significant incentive to follow Islam. Islam spread quickly to unite geographically and culturally distant regions. This ultimately put the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, Mediterranean Sea, and Arabian Peninsula trade routes under Islam’s control. With the expansion of Islam came the expansion of artistic characteristics of Islam into cultures geographically far away, but linked by trade and religion. (Bernstein, 71-72)

 
The following two examples of artwork come from some of the furthest reaches of the Islamic Empire. These works reflect the extent of Islamic influence, from India to Spain to most of Northern Africa. The symbols used in the art are significantly similar, though the materials used are different in this case. During the rise and peak of Islam—from approximately 622 to 1258 AD—Islam provided a unifying language, culture, and trade customs for the regions under its influence.

Qutb Minar in Delhi, India

1199-1369 AD

This photo captures just a small portion of the Koranic verses and Arabic designs on this architectural minaret in Delhi, India.  Though there have Islamic trade posts in India since the 700s, this is the first Indo-Islamic minaret to be built in India by the first Islamic Sultans of Delhi, Qutbu'd-Din Aibak.  The minaret is made of brick and stands about 72.5 meters tall which puts it at the tallet minaret in the world, but decreases its practicality.  It took over a century to complete the project, and several restorations have followed as natural events - earthquakes, lightning - have damaged the minaret.

Pyxis of al-Mughira (AD 968)

Spain, Madinat al-Zahra

The Pyxs of al-Mughira shows some similarities in design with the Minaret of India with the intricate hand carving and repetitive patters.  This piece appears to be a gift for a young man, since the Arabic inscription around the lid says, "God's blessing, favors, joy, beatitude to al-Mughira son of the Commander of the faithful, may God have mercy upon him, in the year 357" (Louvre).  According to the Louvre Museum, "Ivory— a rare and precious material — was used for diplomatic gifts from North Africa to the Umayyad caliphs of Cordoba in al-Andaluz (modern Spain)." 

These two pieces represent the spread of Islam and the use of trade within the Islamic Empire.  To summarize, the Qutb Minar celebrates the triumph of Islam in India and the Pyxis of al-Mughira represents the use of African ivory as a gift for a son of a powerful Islamic leader in Spain around the same time.  This illustrates a vast trade network and the spread of artistic trends from the heart of Islamic Arabia to the fringes of the empire.


Sources/References:


Yalman, Susan. "The Birth of Islam Heilbrunn." Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


Advisory Board Evaluation. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 1993. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


"Pyxis of Al-Mughira." Louvre Museum. Web. 7 Apr. 2010. .


A Splendid Exchange, Chapter 3


Smart, Ninian. Atlas of the World's Religions. Cary, N.C.: Oxford UP, 1999. 26-27, 174-175.

Gardner's Art through the Ages, 749-750

The European Discovery of America

The European discovery of America had two major effects on artwork in the world. In the Americas, the European domination of the continent accelerated the decline of native artistic endeavors overall. Fewer artists produced fewer pieces of art and with less elaborate designs than found at the peak of indigenous American empires. In Central America, the Spaniards often destroyed indigenous art and religious structures that contained much of the art and replaced the local temples with Spanish cathedrals. The photo below captures this dynamic in Guatemala. Spaniards sought to reduce the ancient Mayan temples from their previous magnificence to their current decrepit state. Although this temple is now part of a national park, the trees growing from the temple indicate that the building will return to the earth unless drastic preservation measures are implemented soon. (Atlas of World Art, 148-151)

In North America, the experience varied depending on the colonizing power. Some tribes, such as the Creeks, abandoned their culture and adopted British and European techniques in farmin, hoping to assimilate successfully. Others, like the Navajo of northern Mexico, used the new technology introduced by Europeans to pursue weaving as an art rather than simply for useful purposes and which opened up markets for their new woven products. Their weaving went from simple, muted colors, to blankets and cloths with bright colors that adopted Spanish and American designs. In the beginning of European colonization of the Americas, the small European presence depended on favorable trade with the native cultures. Once the population of the Europeans grew, and the native populations declined due to diseases, forced assimilation and the destruction of native cultures increased rapidly—coinciding with a decrease of artistic outputs by native tribes. (Creative Destruction)

European art from the discovery of the New World and for the centuries beyond provide significant information on the beliefs and economics of those exploring the Americas. Often, the art studied, such as the painting below, are supposed to document events and people, rather than serve a purely decorative purpose or a daily functional purpose. The painting of the Manhattan purchase captures the sale of Manhattan for blankets, beads, and trinkets to the Indians. It uses idyllic lighting and soft edges to give the viewer a warm feeling, in significant contrast to the view by many Indians today that the Manhattan purchase was not a purchase but rather theft.

The European discovery of the Americas not only allowed for the rise of truly global trade, but also introduced new sources of materials and inspiration for European artists. Additionally, there was new wealth for many Europeans who profited from new trading boundaries and could now commission art, “The fortune created through intercontinental commercial ventures and military conquests translated into copious artistic commissions.” (Atlas of World Art, 155)

The photo above is The Virgin of the Navigators, by Alejo Fernández which depicts the Virgin Mary as a protector of the men who sought to sail from one continent to another. Painted around 1531, it is one of the first pieces of art to depict the exploration of the Americas. Just as the Virgin Mary towers over all the travelers as a protector, she appears to bless their journey and exploration as well. However, the painting was commissioned by the Casa de Contratacion (translates to House of Trade), not a church or religious institute. Not only does the painting thus indicate the pervasiveness of religion in Spanish culture, it also indicates the thriving trade industry that could afford to commission art.

Sources/References:
Phillips, Carla Rahn, 16th Century AD, Renaissance Quarterly, 2005


Frank Graziano. Wounds of love, Oxford University Press US, 2004, p. 147


Atlas of World Art, 148-151


Personal Photos

Renaissance and Trade

To say that art stagnated from the fall of the Roman Empire to the start of the Renaissance era is misleading. In between the decline of the Roman Empire in the 300s and the beginning of the Renaissance in the 14th century, there were tremendous architectural advances during the Romanesque and Gothic art periods, and Islamic art in Spain brought new artistic styles to the region. However, the Renaissance began in Italy when  art included a renewed interest in ideas from classical Greek and Roman art and cultures that inspired curiosity in the natural world. This renewed interest placed, "an emphasis on education and on expanding knowledge (especially of classical antiquity), the exploration of individual potential and a desire to excel, and a commitment to civic responsibility and moral duty," otherwise referred to as humanism. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 1102)




Art historians look at this time period as a time of shifting worldviews among European artists listing “greater illusionism, more emphatic pictorial solidity and spatial depth, and stronger emotional demonstrations from depicted figures,” among the developments in Renaissance art. (Gardner's Art through the Ages, 542)Meanwhile, economists view this time as a revival of European trade, especially long-distance trade. 


Italy was a natural place for the Renaissance to begin considering its prominent economic position. Italy’s port cities connected Europe with Asia, the Middle East, and Africa and experienced great success and economic growth at trade hubs. From Italy, major trade routes extended towards Portugal and Scandinavia that spread the ideas of the Renaissance as well as commodities.  (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 521-523)

Nicola Pisano, The Annunciation and the Nativity, 1260

Giovanni Pisano, The Annunciation and the Nativity, 1301

The two relief sculptures above highlight some of the changes during the early Renaissance art period.  The top sculpture by Nicola Pisano reflects interest in imitating or reviving the ancient classical artistic characteristics of Classical Greece and Rome.  The figures are solid, stoic, but rounded and proportional.  However, about forty years later, Giovanni Pisano, Nicola's son, does his own version of The Annunciation and the Nativity.  The relief sculpture is still done in the classical style, but has a more humanistic feeling. The figures are created in a way to give them movement, emotion, and to create the illusion of more depth between the characters—exactly the artistic techniques cultivated during the Renaissance. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 526)


The Renaissance was not solely an art movement, but it encompassed the renewed interest in learning about many different subjects.  The Benvenuto Cellini, Salt Cellar (1540) is a functional piece of art, intended to hold spices such as salt and pepper.  Yet its design is intricate, aware of depth and perspective, and includes reflects the nobility class' interest in classical art design.  The female appears to represent earth, while the male figure represents the sea, much like classic Greek and Roman gods.  (Atlas of World Art, 155)

Italy continued to be the center for artistic exchange and discovery in Europe, but upon the European discovery of America, new art from exotic cultures began to arrive in Europe.  Portugal developed major trade routes running to and from South America, Africa, India, the West Indies, and much of Asia.  The Netherlands had extensive trade routes by the 1500s running between Brazil, Africa, and Asia.  And Spain brought new materials from North, Central, and South America in addition to founding Spanish colonies in the Americas.  (Atlas of World Art, 154-155)

"Those countries and individuals that were in a position to exploit the new situation - first the Portuguese and Spanish and later the Dutch, French and English - could gain access to an unprecedented range of natural resources, from slaves and animals to plants and minerals. They, and those they traded with, could also learn from each other how to use the art and artifacts they made from these materials in a competitive display." (Atlas of World Art, 146)

This quotes articulates what the consequences are when certain countries are able to exploit their trade advantages to maximize their own benefit.  For the artists at that time, the "New World" meant there were more materials to work with, more wealthy citizens who could commission art, and the need for artists to reevaluate their perspective of the world now they were aware of a huge and still mostly unknown landmass in the world.  Meanwhile, new wealth and a larger gold supply upped the intensity of competitive display among the European nobles as they enlisted artists to create pieces to add to the elites' collection to show off their wealth and gain status. (Atlas of World Art, 154-155)


No discussion about the Renaissance could be complete without a review of Leonardo daVinci’s contributions to Renaissance art.  In some ways, da Vinci exemplifies the humanism that defines the Renaissance.  He was a talented artist, but also worked on inventions, tried different experiments, had an interest in anatomy, and studied a variety of other topics.  The Vitruvian Man was a study of the human body according to the ancient classical beliefs of the perfect dimensions of a man.  It reveals an understanding of anatomy, proportion, and science at it illustrates the concept of a perfect man.  Today the drawing is more synonymous with medical books than museums, but it shows the multi-dimensionality of many artists in the Renaissance.

Vitruvian Man, 1487

Mona Lisa (1505)

The Mona Lisa is one of the most famous paintings in the world, and it comes from Leonard da Vinci from the high Renaissance era.  It is unusual in part because the mysterious, empty landscape compliments the subject's hidden emotions.  The mysterious smile and soft, dark edges in the painting really engages the viewer in figuring out what the subject hides behind the crossed hands and partial smile. This painting also shows the technique called sfumato, which comes from the Italian word meaning smoky.  It is defined as the technique that softly blends areas from light to dark, which creates subtle transitions that gives the images a vague, hazy, or smoky appearance (Art Fundamentals, 150).  Da Vinci is credited with starting sfumato, though painters before him experimented with light and dark blending techniques as well.  (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 617-618)




Essentially, the Renaissance art took off when trade and commerce began to thrive once again in Europe.  This time, long-distance trade, economic growth, the discovery of the Americas, and more centralized governments set the foundations for the early stages of European capitalism.  Trade required credits and exchange systems, stable governments, enforceable agreements which led to the establishment of trading firms in places like Florence, Italy.  It's hard to determine exactly which factors contributed to the rise of Renaissance art, but the economic revivals that occured in much of Europe at this time played a major role in sustaining and encouraging artistic experimentation. 


Increased trade coincided with increased European wealth which fueled the demand for art and allowed more people to jump into art production.  New techniques in perspective, shading, dimension, and types of materials led to a distinct change in European art from the flat, usually religious and ornate Gothic art of the 1200s to the emotionally captivating and highly expressive art during the high Renaissance period a few centuries later.  These masterpieces continue to inspire artists to this day and revolutionized how people understand art.  In a sense, the changes during this time changed art from simply a thing one views, to something one can experience and connect with emotionally.




Sources:


Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 521-523, 526, 542, 545, 617-618, 1102


Art Fundamentals, 150


Atlas of World Art, 146, 154-155

Art and Artistic Reactions to the Industrial Revolution

The industrial revolution was possible because of increased trade, and increased trade accelerated the industrial revolution. The focus of many studies of the industrial revolution focus on the 1800s where factories, mechanized textiles, steam power, and the use of steel transformed the urban landscapes of England, the United States, and much of Europe. Although these societies in the 19th century remained primarily agrarian, the industrial revolution contributed significantly to the urbanization and growth of cities. With urban growth came pollution and overcrowding in slums, but also progress in areas such as city planning and sanitation, among other developments.

 

The industrial revolution also changed the way artists worked. Most used the tools and paints that were now mass-produced at factories but considerably cheaper. Many incorporated the industrial revolution into at least some of their work. Others reevaluated their perspective on reality as they witnessed increasing demands for resources and the colonization of less developed countries. In attempts to capture the events of modernity, many artists started to critically examine their society's status quo and the basic foundations of art. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 853-855)

Coalbrookdale by Night, 1801, Philip James De Loutherbourg

Above is a painting of the newly industrialized village of Shropshire in western England. Loutherbourg contrasts a raging blaze from the factory with an idyllic woodland and rustic landscape. The painting captures the artists’ image of a particular moment in time while the dark colors used to paint the simple rural inhabitants are almost overwhelmed by the burst of bright light that draw the viewer’s attention to the center of the painting, away from the inhabitants and instead toward the industrial flames. The mood of painting suggests Loutherbourg viewed the industrialization of England negatively. However, the painting records the transformation of England’s economy from local and agrarian to one of increased productivity, a rapidly growing economy, and connected to the world through trade.

Fur Traders Descending the Missouri, George Caleb Bingham, 1845

This painting depicts one simple trade scene of the 1800s in the United States which reveals much about trade and transportation of the time. Although small canoes and boats such at the one illustrated were increasingly rare on the Missouri by 1845, Bingham appears to capture a moment in time. Although the subjects may be presented accurately in respect to their wealth and mode of transportation, there is an artistic perspective present that must be considered. The painting comes from the artists' point of view and Bingham’s intent or purpose for painting this scene can be speculated but not confirmed. It is difficult to discern whether he is lamenting the demise of the local fur trading way of life, or if he simply wants to record the event knowing that it will soon become history. (World Art: The Essential Illustrated History. 192.)

Grand Canyon of Yellowstone, Thomas Moran, 1872

This painting is interesting not because it depicts the industrial revolution, but because it is a product of industrialization. Moran painting several paintings of Yellowstone, but to finish his paintings, he took photographs and combined them with sketches for the final composition. Because of advances in transportation, Moran was able to get to the Grand Canyon of Yellowstone. Once he arrived at the Canyon, he used modern technology – the camera – to assist in the construction of his artwork. Despite taking photographs, he dramatically interprets the scene to achieve a particular image that he wishes to create. Although he could have painted the image with pinpoint accuracy, he uses soft lines to keep the dreamy quality of the Canyon in his final piece.

Claude Monet, Impression: Sunrise, 1872

Monet helped usher in a new era in art with his painting style. Named impressionism by his critics at first, impressionism seeks to capture a moment in time without the detail and smoothness of previous painting eras. Monet and the impressionists revolutionized art by exaggerating the texture of their brushstrokes and seeking to leave viewers with deep emotions rather than a definite image. In some ways, impressionism’s lack of clarity captures the chaos many felt with the pace of the industrial revolution.

Thus, artists found uses for many of the advances in technology during the Industrial Revolution. However, as new inventions revolutionized their way of life frequently during the 19th century – machines, trains, radio, electricity, telephone, camera, and steel, among others – artists began to respond differently. Some sought to record history, others wanted to share their view of the industrialization, and others, like Monet, used art to portray their subjective responses to nature and society.

Sources:

Art Fundamentals, chpt. 8

World Art Atlas, 192, 215

World Art: The Essential Illustrated History. Flame Tree Publishing, 2006. 192

Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 853-855, 869-870

Globalization and Global Art

Continued industrialization, two devastating World Wars and a global economic depression challenged how people viewed the world, including artists. Art movements of the early 20th century represent attempts of artists to move beyond social assumptions and challenge commonly held ideas, such as the primacy of rationality and unwavering faith in science that lingered from the thoughts of the Enlightenment and Scientific Revolution. Movements such as Cubism, Surrealism and Dadaism all emphasize abstraction—the process or visual effects characterized by the simplification or rearrangement of images—and characterize 20th century artwork. (Art Fundamentals, 2)

Pablo Picasso, The Young Ladies of Avignon, 1907

Pablo Picasso, a Spanish painter who bridged the 19th and 20th centuries, led the movement toward full abstraction in paintings. As Picasso once stated, “I paint forms as I think them, not as I see them” (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 971). Instead of representing the figures close to their forms in reality, Picasso flattened the images, interwove the bodies and incorporated his fascination with African art by painting an African mask on one of the women. In fact, Picasso benefitted from the expanding European colonization of the world by amassing an extensive collection of African art which in turn provided inspiration for many of his works. However, critics argued Picasso’s abstractions from reality were a move backwards in artistic endeavors since the flatness of the bodies and simplified backgrounds reminded some of ancient art, which they considered inferior. Instead, artists who followed Picasso were inspired and set forward in attempts to revisit common-held views on perspective, dimension, depth, and space. (Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 969-971)

Piet Mondrian, Composition with Red Blue and Yellow, 1930

When looking at a piece of modern art, one may wonder how to evaluate the art. Can one understand the social and economic forces behind artist motivation when pieces of art appear simple, as Piet Mondrian’s does above? The response is still yes. Although the simplicity of ancient art may inspire some of the experiments of modern artists, modern art’s abstractions are a result of awareness of intangible thoughts and emotions and seek to represent ideas that go beyond reality or show a new reality.

Dutch artist Piet Mondrian wanted to go above literal representations and worked to find an artistic concept that expressed a universal reality. He believed that great art had two goals: to create universal beauty and to visually please the artist himself. For Mondrian, he sought to express these two goals by using combination techniques to combine colors with lines to create a harmonious work of art.

The idea of universality is not new from a European standpoint, but universality and ideas of superiority have often been confused as synonymous. Different eras of Europeans believed their viewpoints represented the supreme and universal views of the world, just remember the Spanish conquistadors’ assumption of superiority, the Catholic Inquisition’s certainty of their point of view, and European justifications for colonization, among others.

However, when 20th century artists argue that they seek a universal reality, such as Mondrian, they do so with the knowledge of the diversity of cultures that exist. Such knowledge exists in a large part due to the rise of global trade that brought an awareness of the cultures of Africa and the Americas to the Europeans. Thus, is there such a thing as global art, since there is in fact global trade?  Increased international commerce encourages the movement of goods, ideas and people across increasingly fluid borders.  The next painter, Frida Kahlo, was a recipient of such benefits of trade, but also struggled with what her global travels meant for her personal identity.

Frida Kahlo, Autoretrato en la Frontera entre Mexico y los Estados, 1932

Frida Kahlo was a loyal Mexican citizen who loved her country. She started painting after an accident left her in chronic pain as a teenager and her paintings often reflect a Mexican-nationalist perspective. She became a popular Mexican artists, and had to travel frequently to the United States to display and sell her works to the thriving art markets of American cities.

In this work of art, America is painted as mechanical, dirty, and industrialized, suggesting that the industrialization of America could not sway her loyalties away from Mexico. However, Mexico is unindustrialized and, through the use of symbols, appears to be dying. Kahlo uses the painting to reveal her struggles to balance her concerns and love of Mexico with the need to travel and live in the United States for her and her husband’s artistic careers.

Here she is dressed in European garb but holds a Mexican flag. This painting indicates that Kahlo feels as if she is balancing between two countries and does not ascribe to or believe in a universal reality.  Kahlo accepts the need to travel across borders for the sake of selling her art to the appropriate markets, but she yearns for her own culture.  She represents not just herself, but all of those who are a part of the international economy but wish to resist changes to their culture. 

Paul Delvaux, La Ville Inquiete, 1940-1941

With global economics and global trade came truly global wars. World War II presented challenges to artists in how they perceived the world. French painter Delvaux highlights the destruction of World War II in his painting done during the Nazi occupation of France. This scene captures some of the chaos of the war with the dark tones and frantic nude bodies. The one clothed figure in the middle appears lost and frightened by the pandemonium that surrounds him. Delvaux commented on his work, saying, “I believe that it was inspired by its times, an anxious time, a time of upheaval. I simply tried to express this upheaval in my own particular way.” (Christie’s Fine Art Auctions)

The 20th century proved pivotal to artists and the progression of art.  World wars, global trade, far-flung empires, and technological advances inspired many to seek new ways of representing the world. Some artists used paintings to seek higher realities that would transcend cultures, such as Picasso and Mondrian, while Kahlo and Delvaux, among others, used their art to try to make sense of an ever-changing world.

Sources:

"Paul Delvaux (1897-1994) La Ville Inquiète." Christie's - Fine Art Auctions. Web. 7 Apr. 2010.

World Art: The Essential History, pg. 300, 304,305,327

Gardner’s Art through the Ages, 969-971, 1000-1001

Art Fundamentals, 2.

Cowen, Tyler. Creative Destruction.